Literary Theory & Criticism and Indian Aesthetic
Class Assignments
Dicuss" Kuntak's Vakrokti " Theory in detail
Introduction
Kuntaka is the originator of the Vakrokti school of Sanskrit literary theory. He came after Anandvardhan of the 9th century and before Abhinavagupta of the 10th century. His time wasthe time of high merit of Indian poetics. Dhananjaya and Rajashekhar were his contemporary theorists. The theorists who appeared in the time of Kuntaka contributed a lot to what is indifferent shape is considered as modern theories of literature and language. In this context,Ganesh Devy says that Vakrorkti and the Alamkara are two Indian schools which are very close to two Western schools of thought, formalism and new criticism.
Ganesh Devy commented, “Vakrokti is a theory of poetry which perceives poetry essentially as terms of the language of its expression. It sees the poetic language as a language of metaphor and suggestive communication”. Hence, Kuntaka’s contribution in poetic thought is not only the matter of poetry or literature but it is about understanding the language, language of poetry and its difference with the language of the common. Kuntaka’s opinions on language of poetry and overall his study on language makes his position many steps further to the future. He is considered as one of the early language theorists in India.
History of Vakrokti
Before Kuntaka, the theory of Vakrokti was discussed by scholars like Bhamaha, Dandin, Rudrata, and Vamana. Bhamaha considered Vakrokti the soul of poetry and included many figures of speech under it. Dandin accepted it as an ornament (Alamkara) and believed poetry becomes beautiful when ordinary language is decorated. However, Rudrata and Vamana limited Vakrokti to wordplay or metaphor.
Kuntaka gave a broader and more scientific meaning to Vakrokti. He established it as the essential quality of poetry that makes poetic language different from everyday speech, making it the central principle of poetic creation.
What is Vakrokti ?
Kuntaka explains the definition of the term Vakrokti and its genealogical meaning. He mention that, “the term Vakrokti is composed of Vakra + Ukti, where the latter (Ukti) derived from Vac-paribhashane can easily be taken to mean a poetic expression, a clever speech or a pity statement. It is however the former component (Vakra) of the term Vakrokti, evoking diverse shades of meanings and suggestions, that is widely discussed and interpreted in various manners”(Rao, Sreenivas;) .
Kuntaka accepted the traditional idea that poetry is created by the union of word (Shabda) and meaning (Artha). However, he said this union must have Vakrata (uniqueness or artistic twist). According to him, Vakrokti is the true essence and life (Jivita) of poetry, which gives pleasure to the reader. That is why his book is titled Vakrokti-Jivitam, meaning the “life of poetry.”
He believed Vakrokti depends on the poet’s intelligence and creative style (Vidhansabha). Therefore, poetic beauty comes from the poet’s skill and craftsmanship (Kavi- Kaushala), which makes expression unique and meaningful.
Kuntaka' s Vakrokti
According to Kuntaka Vakrokti is created by “Baidagdhabhangibhanitiruchyate”, which means a poetic talent with his own creative power creates such attractive subject which being earthly,sounds heavenly to the rasika or to the readers who has authority to accomplish. Swabhabvokti defines or represents things or objects as it is there in the world of reality. Kuntaka argues there is no credit of creating Swabhabokti because it does not bring any uniqueness in the poetic thought and alamkara also cannot perform its role here in the Swabhabokti. Alamkara makes the objects beautiful by putting the elements which are not there in the object.
Shabda and the Artha make the body of poetry. It can be beautiful with the vakrokti. The cleverness of words should not cover the beauty of the poem. Tadwidgana, means the group of scholars who understand poetry will evaluate this highest art of creation of poetry in a poet.Kuntaka defines poetry by saying that it is “word and sense together enshrined in a styles revealing the artistic creativity of the poet on the one hand and giving delight to the man of taste on the other” (Devy, Ganesh;). This definition of poetry shows that Kuntaka carried the lineage of knowledge on Indian poetics. The previous thoughts propagated by different schools are adapted in Kuntaka’s theory on poetry.
He mentions that the meaning is signified and word signifies the meaning. He elaborated his idea on word, meaning, style, metaphor and poetic language. And later he describes the good quality of true poetry. A good poetry is something which has a unique expression, meaning which delights the readers. A poet can make a mere word unique with his creative talent. Words and meanings are adorned in poetry and they appear as an ‘artistic turn of speech’.
There are different types of Vakrokti suggested by Kuntaka in his Vakrokti-Jivitam Those are,Phonetic figurativeness (Varnavinyasa Vakrata), Lexical figurativeness (padapurvardha Vakrata),Grammatical figurativeness (pratyaya vakrata), Sentential Figurativeness (Vakya vakrata),Contextual figurativeness (Prakarana vakrata), and Compositional figurativeness (Prabandha vakrata).
Kuntaka' s Idea of Sahitya
Kuntaka explains the idea of Sahitya in his Vakrokti-Jivitam. He said,
Sahityamanayo Shobhashalitang Prati kapyasouAnyunyatiriktatwamanoharinyabasthi
Kuntaka’s above statement means that the mode of union is literature. When the word and the meaning exists together and united with each other but do not lose their own identity,characteristics but their union is so heavenly, so spiritual that do not cross the limits of eachother’s boundary then they together create the beauty and that beauty is Sahitya (literature). As word and meaning meet with each other in a heavenly mode, there is no need for additional claims of Alamkara or ornament in literature. Hence, Kuntaka did not feel there was any need for Alamkara as a necessary component of literature.
Marga or Riti or Style and Guna
According to Kuntaka, 'Sukumara Marga’ is an essential condition of Kavya. Beside sukumara Marga, he talks about Bichitra Marga and he explains the characteristics in ten Karikas. There are another Marga which is created by the characteristics of both the above said Margas, and that is Ubhayatmak Marga.
Kuntaka talks about four kinds of Guna. Those are Madhurya, Prasada, Lavanya and Abhijatya. For example he took references from Kalidasa. Later he mentioned two more Guna,Auchitya and Soubhagya and these Gunas are common to all the above three margas.
Conclusion
In this module we have learnt about Kuntaka and his contribution to Indian poetics. We have discussed a historical study on the term of Vakrokti and how Kuntak has successfully theories term and made it a primary condition of a successful poem. Kuntak’s theory is not only a theory of cherishing poetry but he contributed his thoughts to guide the future poets with his understanding of how to write a poem. We have discussed the differences of thoughts on the term Vakrokti with the reference of Kuntaka and his predecessors. We have also discussed aboutKuntaka’s concept of different styles or riti of poetry and his conception about Sahitya in this module.
Home Assignment
Dicuss in detail "Dhvani Theory" by "Anandvardhan "
About the Author
Ānandavardhana was a 9th-century Kashmiri poet and literary critic. He wrote the important Sanskrit work Dhvanyāloka (“Light on Suggestion”).He formulated the Dhvani Theory (Theory of Suggestion), which became central to how poetry and literature are understood in classical Indian aesthetics.
What is Dhvani ?
Dhvani literally means sound or resonance in Sanskrit, but in literary theory it refers to suggestion—the meaning or emotion that lies beyond the literal words of a poem.
According to Ānandavardhana:
So instead of just looking at the dictionary meaning of words, Dhvani asks us to pay attention to the implied meaning, the emotion, or the deeper resonance behind them.
Three Levels of Meaning
In Dhvani theory, words produce meaning on three levels:
1. Abhidha – The literal, dictionary meaning
e.g., “The sun sets.” we understand simply that the sun has set.
2. Lakṣaṇa – The indirect or implied meaning
This meaning is used when the literal doesn’t make sense or needs expansion.
3. Vyañjanā – The suggestive meaning
This is the deepest level — the emotional or imaginative impact that goes beyond what is said.
Dhvani (vyañjanā) is considered higher and more important than literal meaning — it’s what creates the emotional experience in poetry
Type of Dhvani
1. Vastu-Dhvani (Suggestion of Idea or Thought)
Vastu means idea, matter, or content.
When a poem suggests a hidden idea or message beyond the literal meaning, it is called Vastu-Dhvani.
🔹 Example:
If a poet describes a fading lamp, it may suggest the idea of approaching death or decline — even if death is not directly mentioned.
2. Alaṅkāra-Dhvani (Suggestion of Figure of Speech)
Alaṅkāra means ornament or figure of speech.
When a poetic figure (like metaphor or simile) is suggested rather than directly stated, it is Alaṅkāra-Dhvani.
🔹 Example:
Instead of saying “Her face is like the moon,” the poet may describe her face in such a way that the comparison is only implied.
3. Rasa-Dhvani (Suggestion of Emotion)
Rasa means aesthetic emotion or feeling.
When a poem suggests deep emotions such as love, sorrow, heroism, or wonder, it is called Rasa-Dhvani.
This is considered the highest and most important type of Dhvani.
🔹 Example:
A description of a lonely night may suggest feelings of separation and sadness without directly stating them.
Why Dhvani matter
Before Ānandavardhana, many Sanskrit critics focused on figures of speech or style. Ānandavardhana shifted attention to what the poem suggests — the emotional and imaginative meaning that a sensitive reader perceives.
Poetry isn’t just words on a page.
Its essence is in how it evokes deeper meanings and emotions in the reader.
The reader needs a certain sensitivity to perceive Dhvani — that’s why classical theory often talks about the importance of a sahrudaya (a discerning person) in truly appreciating poetry.
Dhvani Theory also divided poetry into three types
1. Dhvani Kavya (Uttama Kavya)
🔹 Meaning:
This is the highest type of poetry.
In this type, the suggested meaning (Vyangya / Dhvani) is more important than the literal meaning
🔹 Key Features:
The real beauty lies in what is suggested, not directly stated.
The literal meaning acts only as a support.
Usually produces deep emotional effect (Rasa).
Considered the best or superior poetry.
🔹 Example:
Verse (illustrative):
“The lamp flickers in the silent room;
the night grows deeper and darker.”
2. Gunibhuta Vyanga Kavya (Madhyama Kavya)
🔹 Meaning:
In this type, the literal meaning is more important, and the suggested meaning is secondary.
🔹 Key Features:
Suggestion is present, but not dominant.
The main focus is on the direct statement.
Dhvani exists but plays a supporting role.
Considered middle-level poetry.
🔹 Example:
Verse (illustrative):
“The king defeated his enemies and expanded his kingdom.”
3. Chitra Kavya (Adhama Kavya)
🔹 Meaning:
In this type, poetry gives importance mainly to ornamentation, figures of speech, and word-play
🔹 Key Features:
Focus on sound, rhyme, alliteration, and decorative language.
Suggestion (Dhvani) is absent or very weak.
Emphasis on external beauty rather than emotional depth.
Considered the lowest type of poetry.
🔹 Example:
Example of word-play:
“Silver sun softly sinks.”
Conclusion
In short, Ānandavardhana’s Dhvani Theory teaches that what a poem suggests — its emotional resonance — is more important than what it simply says.
Dhvani Theory is a theory of suggestion and aesthetic experience.
It teaches that poetry becomes great when it suggests deeper meaning and emotion beyond the literal words.
Thus, according to Ānandavardhana, Dhvani is the soul of poetry.
Essay
Dicuss "Rasa theory" in detail by "Bharat muni "
Introduction
Rasa Theory is one of the most important theories in Indian aesthetics. It was first explained by Bharata Muni in his famous work, the Natyashastra. This text is the foundation of Indian drama, dance, and poetry.
The word “Rasa” means juice, essence, or taste. In literature, it means the emotional flavor that the audience experiences while watching a play or reading poetry.
What is Rasa?
According to Bharata Muni in the Natyashastra, Rasa is the aesthetic pleasure or emotional experience enjoyed by the audience while watching drama or reading poetry.
The word “Rasa” literally means juice, essence, taste, or flavour. Just as food gives taste to the tongue, poetry and drama give emotional taste to the mind and heart.
Bharata Muni’s Original Definition
Bharata says:
“Vibhava–Anubhava–Vyabhichari Bhava Samyogad Rasa Nishpatti.”
Meaning:
Rasa is produced by the combination of:
Vibhava (Determinants – cause of emotion)
Anubhava (Consequents – physical expressions)
Vyabhichari Bhava (Transitory emotions)
When these combine with the Sthayi Bhava (permanent emotion), the audience experiences Rasa.
Elements of Rasa
1.Vibhava (Determinants) – The cause of emotion
Example: Seeing a beautiful garden creates love.
2.Anubhava (Consequents) – Physical expressions of emotion
Example: Smiling, tears, trembling.
3.Vyabhichari Bhava (Transitory feelings) – Temporary emotions
Example: Doubt, shame, anxiety.
4.Sthayi Bhava (Permanent emotion) – The main dominant emotion
Example: Love, anger, sorrow.
When all these combine, the audience experiences Rasa.
The Nine Rasas (Navarasa)
Bharata originally mentioned eight rasas; later scholars added one more (Shanta). These are:
1. Shringara Rasa (The Erotic / Love Rasa)
Sthayi Bhava: Rati (Love)
Colour: Dark blue or green
Deity: Vishnu
Explanation:
Shringara is the rasa of love, beauty, attraction, and harmony. It is considered the king of all rasas. It may be:
Sambhoga (love in union)
Vipralambha (love in separation)
Example:
The love between Rama and Sita in the Ramayana creates Shringara Rasa.
2. Hasya Rasa (Comic Rasa)
Sthayi Bhava: Hasa (Laughter)
Colour: White
Deity: Pramatha
Explanation:
Hasya arises from humorous situations, funny speech, or comic behavior. It creates joy and laughter.
Example:
Comic scenes in Sanskrit dramas, especially the clown (Vidushaka), create Hasya Rasa.
3. Karuna Rasa (Pathetic Rasa)
Sthayi Bhava: Shoka (Sorrow)
Colour: Grey
Deity: Yama
Explanation:
Karuna arises from sadness, tragedy, suffering, or loss. It makes the audience feel sympathy and compassion.
Example:
The exile of Rama in the Ramayana produces Karuna Rasa.
4. Raudra Rasa (Furious Rasa)
Sthayi Bhava: Krodha (Anger)
Colour: Red
Deity: Rudra
Explanation:
Raudra arises from anger, rage, or violence. It is expressed through harsh words, fighting, and revenge.
Example:
Ravana’s anger during battle creates Raudra Rasa.
5. Veera Rasa (Heroic Rasa)
Sthayi Bhava: Utsaha (Courage)
Colour: Golden
Deity: Indra
Explanation:
Veera Rasa expresses bravery, determination, and confidence. It inspires strength and action.
Type :
Dana Veera (Charity)
Dharma Veera (Righteousness)
Yuddha Veera (War)
Example:
Arjuna fighting bravely in the Mahabharata creates Veera Rasa.
6. Bhayanaka Rasa (Terrible Rasa)
Sthayi Bhava: Bhaya (Fear)
Colour: Black
Deity: Kala
Explanation:
Bhayanaka arises from fear, danger, or threat. It creates suspense and anxiety.
Example:
A scene in a forest at night with wild animals creates Bhayanaka Rasa.
7. Bibhatsa Rasa (Odious Rasa)
Sthayi Bhava: Jugupsa (Disgust)
Colour: Blue
Deity: Mahakala
Explanation:
Bibhatsa arises from ugly, impure, or unpleasant situations. It produces disgust.
Example:
Description of a battlefield full of dead bodies creates Bibhatsa Rasa.
8. Adbhuta Rasa (Marvelous Rasa)
Sthayi Bhava: Vismaya (Wonder)
Colour: Yellow
Deity: Brahma
Explanation:
Adbhuta arises from surprise, curiosity, and amazement.
Example:
Seeing Lord Krishna lift Govardhan mountain creates Adbhuta Rasa.
9. Shanta Rasa (Peaceful Rasa)
Sthayi Bhava: Shama (Peace)
Colour: White
Deity: Narayana
Explanation:
Shanta Rasa expresses calmness, spiritual peace, and detachment from worldly desires. It was added later by scholars.
Example:
The peaceful meditation of sages creates Shanta Rasa.
Conclusion
Rasa Theory by Bharata Muni is the foundation of Indian literary criticism. According to him, the main aim of poetry and drama is to produce Rasa — a deep emotional enjoyment in the mind of the audience.
According to Bharata Muni, these nine rasas form the foundation of Indian aesthetics. The main aim of poetry and drama is to create these rasas in the hearts of the audience.
Each Rasa transforms ordinary emotion into aesthetic enjoyment, making literature meaningful and powerful.
